Horse Racing

The competitive racing of horses is one of humankind's most ancient sports, having its origins among the prehistoric nomadic tribesmen of Central Asia who first domesticated the horse about 4500 BC. For thousands of years, horse racing flourished as the sport of kings and the nobility. Modern racing, however, exists primarily because it is a major venue for legalized gambling.

Horse racing is the second most widely attended U.S. spectator sport, after baseball. In 1989, 56,194,565 people attended 8,004 days of racing, wagering $9.14 billion. Horse racing is also a major professional sport in Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and South America.

By far the most popular form of the sport is the racing of mounted THOROUGHBRED horses over flat courses at distances from three-quarters of a mile to two miles. Other major forms of horse racing are harness racing, steeplechase racing, and QUARTER HORSE racing.

Thoroughbred Racing

By the time humans began to keep written records, horse racing was an organized sport in all major civilizations from Central Asia to the Mediterranean. Both chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 638 BC, and the sport became a public obsession in the Roman Empire.

The origins of modern racing lie in the 12th century, when English knights returned from the Crusades with swift Arab horses. Over the next 400 years, an increasing number of Arab stallions were imported and bred to English mares to produce horses that combined speed and endurance. Matching the fastest of these animals in two-horse races for a private wager became a popular diversion of the nobility.

Horse racing began to become a professional sport during the reign (1702-14) of Queen Anne, when match racing gave way to races involving several horses on which the spectators wagered. Racecourses sprang up all over England, offering increasingly large purses to attract the best horses. These purses in turn made breeding and owning horses for racing profitable. With the rapid expansion of the sport came the need for a central governing authority. In 1750 racing's elite met at Newmarket to form the Jockey Club, which to this day exercises complete control over English racing.

The Jockey Club wrote complete rules of racing and sanctioned racecourses to conduct meetings under those rules. Standards defining the quality of races soon led to the designation of certain races as the ultimate tests of excellence. Since 1814, five races for three-year-old horses have been designated as "classics." Three races, open to male horses (colts) and female horses (fillies), make up the English Triple Crown: the 2,000 Guineas, the Epsom Derby (see DERBY, THE), and the St. Leger Stakes. Two races, open to fillies only, are the 1,000 Guineas and the Epsom Oaks.

The Jockey Club also took steps to regulate the breeding of racehorses. James Weatherby, whose family served as accountants to the members of the Jockey Club, was assigned the task of tracing the pedigree, or complete family history, of every horse racing in England. In 1791 the results of his research were published as the Introduction to the General Stud Book. From 1793 to the present, members of the Weatherby family have meticulously recorded the pedigree of every foal born to those racehorses in subsequent volumes of the General Stud Book. By the early 1800s the only horses that could be called "Thoroughbreds" and allowed to race were those descended from horses listed in the General Stud Book. Thoroughbreds are so inbred that the pedigree of every single animal can be traced back father-to-father to one of three stallions, called the "foundation sires." These stallions were the Byerley Turk, foaled c.1679; the Darley Arabian, foaled c.1700; and the Godolphin Arabian, foaled c.1724.

American Thoroughbred Racing

The British settlers brought horses and horse racing with them to the New World, with the first racetrack laid out on Long Island as early as 1665. Although the sport became a popular local pastime, the development of organized racing did not arrive until after the Civil War. (The American Stud Book was begun in 1868.) For the next several decades, with the rapid rise of an industrial economy, gambling on racehorses, and therefore horse racing itself, grew explosively; by 1890, 314 tracks were operating across the country.

The rapid growth of the sport without any central governing authority led to the domination of many tracks by criminal elements. In 1894 the nation's most prominent track and stable owners met in New York to form an American Jockey Club, modeled on the English, which soon ruled racing with an iron hand and eliminated much of the corruption.

In the early 1900s, however, racing in the United States was almost wiped out by antigambling sentiment that led almost all states to ban bookmaking. By 1908 the number of tracks had plummeted to just 25. That same year, however, the introduction of pari-mutuel betting for the Kentucky Derby signaled a turnaround for the sport. More tracks opened as many state legislatures agreed to legalize pari-mutuel betting in exchange for a share of the money wagered. At the end of World War I, prosperity and great horses like Man o' War brought spectators flocking to racetracks. The sport prospered until World War II, declined in popularity during the 1950s and 1960s, then enjoyed a resurgence in the 1970s triggered by the immense popularity of great horses such as Secretariat, Seattle Slew, and Affirmed, each winners of the American Triple Crown--the KENTUCKY DERBY, the Preakness, and the Belmont Stakes. During the late 1980s, another significant decline occurred, however.

Thoroughbred tracks exist in about half the states. Public interest in the sport focuses primarily on major Thoroughbred races such as the American Triple Crown and the Breeder's Cup races (begun in 1984), which offer purses of up to about $1,000,000. State racing commissions have sole authority to license participants and grant racing dates, while sharing the appointment of racing officials and the supervision of racing rules with the Jockey Club. The Jockey Club retains authority over the breeding of Thoroughbreds.

Breeding

Although science has been unable to come up with any breeding system that guarantees the birth of a champion, breeders over the centuries have produced an increasingly higher percentage of Thoroughbreds who are successful on the racetrack by following two basic principles. The first is that Thoroughbreds with superior racing ability are more likely to produce offspring with superior racing ability. The second is that horses with certain pedigrees are more likely to pass along their racing ability to their offspring.

Male Thoroughbreds (stallions) have the highest breeding value because they can mate with about 40 mares a year. The worth of champions, especially winners of Triple Crown races, is so high that groups of investors called breeding syndicates may be formed. Each of the approximately 40 shares of the syndicate entitles its owner to breed one mare to the stallion each year. One share, for a great horse, may cost several million dollars. A share's owner may resell that share at any time.

Farms that produce foals for sale at auction are called commercial breeders. The most successful are E. J. Taylor, Spendthrift Farms, Claiborne Farms, Gainsworthy Farm, and Bluegrass Farm, all in Kentucky. Farms that produce foals to race themselves are called home breeders, and these include such famous stables as Calumet Farms, Elmendorf Farm, and Green-tree Stable in Kentucky and Harbor View Farm in Florida.

Betting

Wagering on the outcome of horse races has been an integral part of the appeal of the sport since prehistory and today is the sole reason horse racing has survived as a major professional sport.

All betting at American tracks today is done under the pari-mutuel wagering system, which was developed by a Frenchman named Pierre Oller in the late 19th century. Under this system, a fixed percentage (14 percent-25 percent) of the total amount wagered is taken out for track operating expenses, racing purses, and state and local taxes. The remaining sum is divided by the number of individual wagers to determine the payoff, or return on each bet. The projected payoff, or "odds," are continuously calculated by the track's computers and posted on the track odds board during the betting period before each race. Odds of "2-1," for example, mean that the bettor will receive $2 profit for every $1 wagered if his or her horse wins.

At all tracks, bettors may wager on a horse to win (finish first), place (finish first or second), or show (finish first, second, or third). Other popular wagers are the daily double (picking the winners of two consecutive races), exactas (picking the first and second horses in order), quinellas (picking the first and second horses in either order), and the pick six (picking the winners of six consecutive races).

Handicapping

The difficult art of predicting the winner of a horse race is called handicapping. The process of handicapping involves evaluating the demonstrated abilities of a horse in light of the conditions under which it will be racing on a given day. To gauge these abilities, handicappers use past performances, detailed published records of preceding races. These past performances indicate the horse's speed, its ability to win, and whether the performances tend to be getting better or worse. The conditions under which the horse will be racing include the quality of the competition in the race, the distance of the race, the type of racing surface (dirt or grass), and the current state of that surface (fast, sloppy, and so on). The term handicapping also has a related but somewhat different meaning: in some races, varying amounts of extra weight are assigned to horses based on age or ability in order to equalize the field.

Harness Racing

The racing of horses in harness dates back to ancient times, but the sport virtually disappeared with the fall of the Roman Empire. The history of modern HARNESS RACING begins in America, where racing trotting horses over country roads became a popular rural pastime by the end of the 18th century. The first tracks for harness racing were constructed in the first decade of the 19th century, and by 1825 harness racing was an institution at hundreds of country fairs across the nation.

With the popularity of harness racing came the development of the STANDARDBRED, a horse bred specifically for racing under harness. The founding sire of all Standardbreds is an English Thoroughbred named Messenger, who was brought to the United States in 1788. Messenger was bred to both pure Thoroughbred and mixed breed mares, and his descendants were rebred until these matings produced a new breed with endurance, temperament, and anatomy uniquely suited to racing under harness. This new breed was called the Standardbred, after the practice of basing all harness-racing speed records on the "standard" distance of one mile.

Harness racing reached the early zenith of its popularity in the late 1800s, with the establishment of a Grand Circuit of major fairs. The sport sharply declined in popularity after 1900, as the automobile replaced the horse and the United States became more urbanized. In 1940, however, Roosevelt Raceway in New York introduced harness racing under the lights with pari-mutuel betting. This innovation sparked a rebirth of harness racing, and today its number of tracks and number of annual races exceed those of Thoroughbred racing. The sport is also popular in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.

Steeplechase, Hurdle, and Point-To-Point Racing

Steeplechases are races over a 2- to 4-mi (3.2- to 6.4-km) course that includes such obstacles as brush fences, stone walls, timber rails, and water jumps. The sport developed from the English and Irish pastime of fox hunting, when hunters would test the speed of their mounts during the cross-country chase. Organized steeplechase racing began about 1830, and has continued to be a popular sport in England to this day. The most famous steeplechase race in the world is England's Grand National, held every year since 1839 at Aintree. Steeplechase racing is occasionally conducted at several U.S. Thoroughbred race tracks. The most significant race is the U.S. Grand National Steeplechase held yearly at Belmont Park.

Hurdling is a form of steeplechasing that is less physically demanding of the horses. The obstacles consist solely of hurdles 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) lower than the obstacles on a steeplechase course, and the races are normally less than 2 mi in length. Hurdling races are often used for training horses that will later compete in steeplechases. Horses chosen for steeplechase training are usually Thoroughbreds selected for their endurance, calm temperament, and larger-than-normal size.

Point-to-point races are held for amateurs on about 120 courses throughout the British Isles. Originally run straight across country (hence the name), these races are now conducted on oval tracks with built-in fences, often on farmland.

Three Day Eventing

Eventing, is an equestrian event which comprises dressage, cross-country and show-jumping. This event has its roots as a comprehensive cavalry test requiring mastery of several types of riding. It has two main formats, the one day event (1DE) and the three day event (3DE). It has previously been known as The Military and Horse Trials.

The governing body of the sport is the FEI. The USEA runs eventing in the United States. In the UK BE(British Eventing) runs eventing, it used to be known as BHTA (British Horse Trials Association).

Eventing is commonly seen as a triathlon of the competitive equestrian world, due to the broad areas of competence required. The dressage phase (held first) comprises a highly exact pattern ridden in a small ring. Rider and horse are judged on their ability to communicate with each other in performing prescribed delicate maneuvers. The challenge is to demonstrate that a supremely fit horse, capable of completing the cross country phase on time, also has the training to perform in a relaxed, precise manner.

The next phase, cross-country, requires both horse and rider to be in excellent shape and to be brave and trusting of each other. This phase consists of approximately 12-20 fences (lower levels), 30-40 at the higher levels, placed on a long outdoor circuit. These fences consist of very solidly built natural objects (telephone poles, stone walls, etc.) as well as various obstacles such as ponds and streams, ditches, drops and banks - based on objects that would commonly occur in the countryside. The course is usually several miles long. This phase is timed, with the rider required to cross the finish line within a certain time frame. Crossing the finish line after the allowed time results in a penalty. Penalties are also incurred if the horse refuses to jump a fence or if the rider falls off. Fitness is required as the time allowed will require a strong canter at the lower levels, to a steady gallop at the higher events.

Unlike 1-day events, 3-day events also include Phases A, B, and C along with Cross Country (Phase D). Phases A and C, Roads and Tracks, are several miles long and usually ridden at a trot to make the time. Phase B, Steeplechase, is a very fast gallop over several Steeplechase-like fences. All four phases together require an extremely fit horse at the top level of the sport. Before embarking on Phase D horses must be presented before a vet who checks that they are sound and their heart rate has recovered sufficiently whilst in the "ten-minute box".

Before the last phase, showjumping, horses are inspected by a vet to ensure that they have not incurred any injuries as a result of their exertions on the previous day.

The last phase, showjumping, tests the technical jumping skills of the horse and rider, as well as their fitness. In this phase, 12-20 fences are set up in a ring. These fences are brightly colored and consist of poles set in shallow cups. If the horse and rider are not in adequate shape or do not have the technical skill, then they will knock down the poles, incurring penalties. This phase is also timed, with penalties being given for every second over the required time. In addition to normal jumping skills, eventing showjumping tests the fitness of the horse and rider, generally being held after the cross country phase so the horse and rider will both be tired.

The winner is the horse and rider with the fewest penalties. Ribbons and prizes are usually presented while mounted, before the placegetters take a lap of honour around the arena.

In the United States, 3-Day Eventing is broken down into the following levels:

Beginner Novice: X-C and Stadium fences 2'7", drops 3'3", 300-350 mpm (meters per minute) on cross country.

Novice: X-C fences 2'11," drops 3'11", 350-400 mpm; Stadium fences 2'11"

Training: X-C fences 3'3", drops 4'7", 420-470 mpm; Stadium fences 3'3"

Preliminary: X-C fences 3'7", drops 5'3", 520 mpm; Stadium fences 3'7"

Intermediate: X-C fences 3'9", drops 5'11", 550 mpm; Stadium fences 3'11"

Advanced: X-C fences 3'11", drops 6'7", 570 mpm; Stadium fences 4'1"

(Beginner Novice through Advanced is recognized by the USEA).

Thoroughbreds and part-thoroughbreds usually dominate the sport because of their stamina and athletic ability, although many warmbloods and warmblood-thoroughbred crosses excel. In the UK Irish sport horses which are a cross between Irish Draughts and Thoroughbreds have been popular for many years.

Polo

Polo (also known as Cho-gan) is a team game played on a field with one goal for each team. Each team has three (enclosed arena) or four (fullsized grass field) players. Polo features successive periods called "chukkas", and riders score by driving a ball into the opposing team's goal using a long-handled mallet. In this it is similar to many team sports such as football and field hockey. The main difference is that the players play on horseback.

Polo is arguably one of the most complex of games in the world. The precise origin of polo is obscure and undocumented and there is ample evidence of the game's place in the history of Asia. No one knows where or when stick first met ball after the horse was domesticated by the ancient Iranian (Aryan) tribes of Central Asia before their migration to Iranian plateau; but it seems likely that as the use of light cavalry spread throughout Iranian plateau, Asia Minor, China and the Indian subcontinent, so did this rugged game on horseback.

However, many scholars believe that polo originated among the Iranian tribes sometime before Darius the Great (521–485 BC) and his cavalry forged the Second Iranian Empire, the Achaemenid dynasty. Certainly it is Persian literature and art that give us the richest accounts of polo in antiquity. The first recorded polo match occurred in roughly 600 BC between the Turkomans and Persian, with victory going to the Turkomans.

Ferdowsi, the most famous of Iranian poet-historian, gives a number of later accounts of royal polo tournaments in his 9th century epic, Shahnameh (the Epic of Kings). Some believe that the Chinese (the Mongols) were the first to try their hands at the game, but in the earliest account, Ferdowsi romanticizes an international match between Turanian force and the followers of Siyâvash, a legendary Persian prince from the earliest centuries of the Empire. The poet is eloquent in his praise of Siyâvash's skills on the polo field. Ferdowsi also tells of Emperor Sâpour-II of Sasanian dynasty of the 4th Century AD, who learned to play polo when he was only seven years old.

Polo was also popular among other nations, including China, where it was the royal pastime for many centuries. The Chinese most probably learned the game from the Iranian nobles who sought refuge in Chinese courts after the invasion of the Iranian Empire by the Arabs, or possibly by some Indian tribes who were taught by the Iranians. The polo stick appears on Chinese royal coats of arms and the game was part of the court life in the golden age of Chinese classical culture under Ming-Hung, the Radiant Emperor, who as an enthusiastic patron of equestrian activities.

For more than 20 centuries polo remained a favourite of the rulers of Asia, who played the game or were its patrons. Their Queens played, as did the nobility and the mounted warriors

. Polo for non-Iranians was the nearest equivalent to a national sport in those times, from Japan to Egypt, from India to the Byzantine Empire. As the great Eastern empires collapsed, however, so disappeared the glittering court life of which polo was so important a part, and the game itself was preserved only in remote villages.

Introduction to the Occident

Polo came to the west via Manipur, a northeastern state in India. The Guinness Book of Records in its 1991 edition (page 288) traces the origins of the game to Manipur, circa 3100 BC, where it was known as Sagol Kangjei. According to historical accounts, one British government official stationed in Manipur (then a princely state) during the late 19th century wrote an account of the sport, and thus its popularity spread.

As further proof, it is recorded during the House of Lords debate on Juvraj Tikendrajit's trial on 22nd June 1891, the Marquess of Ripon said about Manipur "it is a small State (Manipur), probably until these events took place very little known to your Lordships, unless, indeed, some of you may have heard of it as the birth place of the Game of Polo."

The 10th Hussars at Aldershot, Hants, introduced polo to England, in 1869 after reading an account of the game in The Field magazine. The game's governing body in the United Kingdom is the Hurlingham Polo Association, which drew up the first set of formal British rules in 1874, many of which are still in existence.

The sport became popular amongst European nobility, but during the early part of the 20th century, under the leadership of Harry Payne Whitney, polo changed to become a high-speed sport in the United States, differing from the game in England, where it involved short passes to move the ball toward the opposition's goal. Whitney and his teammates used the fast break, sending long passes downfield to riders who had broken away from the pack at a full gallop.

The Contemporary Sport

Polo is now an active sport in 77 countries, and although its tenure as an Olympic sport was limited to 1900–1939, in 1998 the International Olympic Committee recognised it as a sport with a bona fide international governing body, the Federation of International Polo.

Polo is, however, played professionally in only a few countries, notably Argentina, England, India, and the United States.

Argentina dominates the professional sport, its polo team has been the uninterrupted world champion since 1949 and is today the source of most of the world's 10 goal (i.e., top-rated) players. It is also the source of the Raza Polo Argentino, the only purpose-bred polo pony in general international demand. In the world of polo, Argentina's Heguy family, are to polo what the Barrymore family is to acting.

The U.S. is unique in possessing a professional women's polo league, the United States Women's Polo Federation, which was founded in 2000. The sixteen-team league plays across the country.

The modern sport has had difficulty grappling with the traditional social and economic exclusivity associated with a game that is inevitably expensive when played at a serious level. On the one hand, many polo athletes genuinely desire to expand broad public participation in the sport, both as an end in itself and to increase the standard of play. On the other hand, many members of polo clubs, particularly social or non-playing members, are attracted to the sport precisely because of its aura of wealth and its remove from ordinary people.

Nevertheless, the popularity of polo has grown steadily since the 1980s, and its future appears to have been greatly strengthened by its return as a varsity sport at universities across the world.

From History of Horse Racing

Dressage

The fundamental purpose of Dressage (a French term meaning "training") is to develop, through standardized progressive training methods, a horse's natural athletic ability and willingness to perform, thereby maximizing its potential as a riding horse. Although the discipline has its roots in classical Greek horsemanship, dressage was first recognized as an important equestrian pursuit during the Renaissance in western Europe. The great European riding masters of that period developed a sequential training system that has changed little since then and is still considered the basis of modern dressage.

Early European aristocrats displayed their horses' training in equestrian pageants, but in modern dressage competition, successful training at the various levels is demonstrated through the performance of "tests," or prescribed series of movements within a standard arena. Judges evaluate each movement on the basis of an objective standard appropriate to the level of the test and assign each movement a score from 0 to 10-zero being "not executed" and 10 being "excellent." A score of 9 (or "very good") is considered a particularly high mark.

The arena

There are two sizes of arenas: small and standard. The small arena is 20 meters by 40 meters, and is used for the lower levels of dressage and 3-day eventing dressage. The standard arena is 20 meters by 60 meters, and is used for upper-level tests. Dressage arenas have a lettering system around their outside in the order (clockwise) A-K-E-H-C-M-B-F (small arena) and A-K-V-E-S-H-C-M-R-B-P-F (standard arena). At the start of the test, the horse enters at A. There is always a judge sitting at C (although for upper-level competition, there is generally more than one judge at a second or third place around the arena). The invisible letter X is always in the center of the dressage arena.

The dressage arena also has a centerline (from A to C, going through X in the middle), as well as two quarter-lines (halfway between the centerline and long sides of each arena).

Olympic level

The dressage tests performed at the Olympic Games are those of the highest level-Grand Prix. This level of test demands the most skill and concentration from both horse and rider.

Gaits and movements performed at this level include collected and extended walk, trot, and canter; trot and canter half-pass (almost a sideways movement); passage (a slow-motion trot); piaffe (a "trot in place"); one and two tempi changes (where the horse appears to skip as it changes leads in the canter); canter "zigzags"; and pirouettes (a 360-degree circle, in place, at the canter).

Tests ridden at the Olympic Games are scored by a panel of five international judges. Each movement in each test receives a numeric score and the resulting final score is then converted into a percentage, which is carried out to three decimal points. The higher the percentage, the higher the score.

Olympic team medals are won by the teams with the highest, second highest, and third highest total percentage from their best three rides in the Grand Prix test.

Once the team medals are determined, horses and riders compete for individual medals. The team competition serves as the first individual qualifier, in that the top 25 horse/rider combinations from the Grand Prix test move on to the next round. The second individual qualifier is the Grand Prix Special test, which consists of Grand Prix movements arranged in a different pattern. For those 25 riders, the scores from the Grand Prix and the Grand Prix Special are then combined and the resulting top 15 horse/rider combinations move on to the individual medal competition-the crowd-pleasing Grand Prix Freestyle.

For their freestyles, riders and horses perform specially choreographed patterns to music. At this level, the freestyle tests may contain all the Grand Prix movements, as well as double canter pirouettes, pirouettes in piaffe, and half-pass in passage. For the freestyle, judges award technical marks for the various movements, as well as artistic marks. In the case of a tie, the ride with the higher artistic marks wins.

Apart from competition, there is a tradition of Classical Dressage, in which purists pursue the tradition of dressage as an art form, for its own joy and beauty. Dressage is also a part of the Portuguese and Spanish bullfighting exhibitions. The traditions of the Old Masters who originated Dressage are kept alive by the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria and the Cadre Noir in Saumur, France.

Breeds commonly used for competitive dressage are normally in the warmblood category, as these breeds have the vigorous, extended movement and strength necessary for the sport. However, Dressage is an egalitarian sport in which all breeds are given an opportunity to compete successfully. Iberian horses such as the Andalusian, Lusitano and Lippizanner are most popular among practitioners of Classical Dressage. These breeds excel in the collected movements of Classical Dressage.

Airs Above Ground

These are a series of higher-level dressage maneuvers where the horse leaps above the ground. These include the Capriole, Courbette, croupade, and Levade. They are performed with or without a rider.

The capriole is one of the "airs above the ground" in classical dressage. It is not seen in modern competitive dressage, but is performed by the horses of the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir in Saumur.

In the capriole, the horse jumps from a raised position of the forehand straight up into the air, kicks out with the hind legs, and lands more or less on all four legs at the same time. It requires an enormously powerful horse to perform correctly.

The courbette is one of the "airs above the ground" of classical dressage. It is not seen in modern competitive dressage, but is performed by the horses of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna and the Cadre Noir of Saumur.

In the courbette, the horse raises his forehand off ground ground, tucks up his forelegs evenly, and then jumps forward, never allowing the forelegs to touch down, in a series of "hops". Extremely strong and talented horses can perform five or more leaps forward before having to touch down with the forelegs. It is more usual to see a series of three or four leaps.

The levade is one of the "airs above the ground" in classical dressage. It is not performed in modern competitive dressage, but can be seen performed by the horses of the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir of Saumur.

In the levade, the horse rises on his haunches to an angle of approximately 35 degrees from the ground, with both forelegs tucked up evenly, and balances in that position. At the beginning of the movement, the hind feet come under the horse's center of gravity with the hocks coming lower to the ground, so that the horse appears to sink down in back and rise in front. The position is held for a number of seconds, and then the horse quietly puts the forelegs back on the ground and proceeds at the walk, or stands at the halt.

The levade is a movement that requires enormous strength of the horse, and not many horses are capable of a good quality levade. The Lipizzans of the Spanish Riding School are particularly suited to the movement.

Show Jumping

Show jumping is a form of competition in which horses are jumped over a course of fences, low walls, and other obstacles (e.g., water-filled ditches or troughs). Show jumping is a competitive sport consisting of many elements. The course is pre-arranged; the event may be timed or untimed event. It is scored by a judge or panel of judges.

Courses

There are four types of jumping disciplines: Hunter, Equitation, Jumper(show jumping), and Stadium Jumping Courses (with combined three day eventing). In a Hunter style course, courses are designed for a smooth, flowing performance of the horse. A rider should demonstrate an even pace over fences simulating those found in the natural hunting field. In competition, a horse is judged on its performance, manners, and way of going. An even, steady pace, consistently good takeoff distances, good jumping style, long, low movement, and overall smoothness and ease of performance are paramount. If a horse ticks, or touches, the fence he is jumping with his fore or hind legs, a fault is added to the score.

Hunter courses may be in a ring or over an outside course. There are usually eight fences, simple verticles and spreads of a moderate size. Typical hunter fences are natural rails, gates, walls, coops, brush, and logs. A typical hunter course includes a one or two stride in-and-out (combination) and ascending oxers; triple bars and square oxers are prohibited. Because fences are set at standard distances that are based on the 12 foot stride, riders do not walk the course before competition, but ride it off their eye.

Equitation courses are designed to test the skills of the rider. In an equitation class, the rider is judged on his own and his horse's performance over the course, including correct takeoff distance, accurate lines and turnes, form and style, and maintainence of an even pace over the entire course. The rider must be both smooth and effective, with aids as subtle as possible. Equitation courses may be held over hunter or jumper style obstacles, including verticles and spreads of to 3'6", one or more combinations and at least two changes of direction. Course designers include tests of technical ability (related distances, bending lines, and combinations, precision (narrow fences), and control (ability to lengthen and shorten strides smoothly, to ride a specific line, and to turn accurately). The horse is expected to be on the correct lead in all turns, so ability to land in the correct lead and execute a smooth flying change is important.

Jumper, or show jumping, courses are held over a course of show jumping obstacles, including verticles, spreads, double and triple combinations, and many turns and changes of direction. The purpose is to jump cleanly over a twisting course within a time allowed; jumping faults are incurred for knockdowns only (as compared to ticks), disobedience, and time faults for exceeding time allowance. Tied entries jump over a raised and shortened course; if entries are tied in the jumpoff, the fastest time wins. Riders walk both course and the jumpoff course before competition, to plan their ride.

Jumper courses are highly technical, requiring boldness, scope, power, accuracy, and control; speed is also a factor, especially in jumpoff course and speed classes (in which time counts in the first round). A jumper must jump big, bravely, and fast, but he must also be careful and accurate to avoid knockdowns, and must be balanced and rideable in order to rate and turn accurately. A jumper rider must ride the best line to each fence, saving ground with well-planned turns and lines, and must adjust his horse's stride for each fence and distance, while avoiding knockdowns. In a jumpoff, he must balance the need to go as fast as possible and turn as tight as he can, against his horse's ability to jump cleanly.

Three Day Eventing courses are the last part of eventing, in which Dressage, Cross-Country, and Show Jumping is tested. -The above 'Courses' not directly quoted but was taken from the United States Pony Club Manual of Horsemanship-

The horses are allowed a certain number of refusals to take a jump or other obstacle, but fault points are added to their score for each one. Until recently, it was 3 faults, but was changed to 4 faults by the FEI (Federation Equestrian Internationale) as it was decided that it is better for the horse to attempt the jump rather than to refuse it and should therefore not be penalised less for a more severe fault. If they take more than the time allowed for the course, they earn 1/4 fault for each extra second. For every pole that is knocked down, 4 faults are earned.

The final rankings are based on the lowest number of points accumulated. In case of a draw, the horse with the fastest time ranks higher.

The history of show jumping

Show jumping is a relatively new equestrian sport. Until the Enclosures Acts which came into force in England in the eighteenth century there had been no need for a horse to jump fences as there had been none. But with this act of parliament came new challenges for those followers of fox hounds. The enclosures act brought fencing and boundaries to many parts of the country as common ground was dispersed amoungst the wealthy landowners. This meant that those wishing to pursue their sport now needed horses which were capable of jumping these obstacles.

In the early shows held in France there was a parade of competitors who then took off across country for the jumping. This sport was, however, not popular with spectators as they could not watch the jumping. Soon after the introduction of these parades fences began to appear in the arena. This became known as ‘Lepping’. Fifteen years later, ‘Lepping’ competitions were brought to Britain and by 1900 most of the more important shows had ‘Lepping’ classes although they rarely attracted more than 20 competitors. The ladies, riding side-saddle, had their own classes.

At this time, the principal cavalry schools of Europe at Pinerolo and Tor-di-Quinto in Italy, the French school in Saumur and the Spanish school in Vienna preferred to use a backward seat when jumping for safety purposes with long length stirrups. Whilst the Italian Instructor Captain Fiederico Caprilli heavily influenced the forward seat with his ideas that the forward position would not impede the balance of the horse negotiating obstacles. It is this latter style which is commonly used today.

The first big showjumping class to be held in England was in the Horse of the Year Show at Olympia in 1907. Most of the competitors were servicemen and it became clear at this competition and in the subsequent years that there was no uniformity of rules for the sport. Judges marked on their own opinions. Some marked according to the severity of the obstacle and others marked according to style. Before 1907 there were no penalties for a refusal and the competitor was sometimes asked to miss the fence to please the spectators. The first courses were built with little imagination many consisting of only a straight bar fence and a water jump. A meeting was arranged in 1923 to rectify it and this led to the formation of the BSJA in 1925.

Original scoring tariff

The original list of faults introduced in 1925 was as follows:

Refusing or Bolting at any fence:

1st: 2 faults

2nd: 3 faults

3rd: Debarment

Fall of Horse or Rider or both: 4 faults

Horse touches a fence without knocking it down: ½ fault

Horse upsets fence with:

Fore limbs: 4 faults

Hind limbs: 2 faults

Water jump:

Fore leg in: 2 faults

Hind leg in: 1 fault

Upsetting or removing the water fence: ½ fault

The differences between the number of faults a horse received depending upon which limb hit the fence was a remnat from the origins in hunting whereby it was more dangerous for a horse to hit a jump with his forefoot as he was more likely to tip up.

Water jumps were at least 15 feet (5 metres) wide although the water had often drained out of them before the last competitor jumped them. High jumping would start with a pole at around 5 foot but this was later abandoned as many horses went under the pole. It was for this reason that more poles were added and fillers came into use. In the early days time penalties did not count and competitors were not penalised until 1917. Showjumping was first incorporated into the Olympic Games in 1912 and has thrived ever since its popularity due in part as its suitability as a spectator sport which can be viewed on television.

Reining

Reining is a Western horseback riding competition. Early in American history, the American stockman didn't have many resources to manage his cattle. The cattle were moved and worked--branded, doctored, sorted, or herded--without benefit of fences, barns or other means of holding the animals. A good cattle hand needed a good horse--one that could change directions quickly, stop on a dime, and accelerate quickly after an errant cow. The cowboy had to be able to handle this animal with a light touch on the reins, so that the cowboy's attention could also be on handling the lariat (to rope the cattle).

The demonstration of these ideal characteristics evolved into the sport of reining, where the riders guide the horses through a precise pattern of circles, spins, and stops. All work is done at the canter (or "lope" or "run" in Western parlance). The patterns consist of small slow circles, large fast circles, spins, rapid changes of directions, and flying lead changes. (The canter or lope is a three-beat canter in which either the left or right foreleg leads; the horse can with training switch leads in the air.)

There are two major organizations that put on reining competitions in the United States: the National Reining Horse Association and The American Quarter Horse Association. The United States Equestrian Foundation is the National Governing Body. From being a riding discipline restricted to the American West, interest in reining has grown internationally. International equestrian competitions are governed by the Federation Equestre Internationale. Reining is one of the world's fastest growing horse sports. Its popularity has spread to Europe and beyond. For the first time in the history of reining, the 2004 top 10 horses were all owned by Europeans.

People who enjoy it say that reining combines the artistic appeal of dressage plus the crowd appeal of rodeo.

Barrel Racing

Barrel racing is a rodeo event that features a horse or barrel racer and one mounted cowgirl, also called a barrel racer, running a cloverleaf pattern around three barrels in a triangular arrangement.

The cowgirl will take up a gallop and ride towards the first barrel. They must make a complete loop around the barrel then accelerate toward the second barrel. At the second barrel, they will again make a complete loop, which means they will make the turn on the other lead then accelerate toward the third barrel. At the third barrel they will again make a complete loop and then run back to the start. The racers will pass through an electronic timer entering and leaving the barrel arrangement and the elapsed time is the time for the event.

It is permitted to touch the barrels but not to knock them over. Knocking a barrel over adds a 5 second penalty to the time. Since going wide around a barrel is slower a delicate balance of speed and control must be made to achieve the fastest times. The time of the event is effected by the size of the arena in which the event is held, but the times for top professionals barrel races are between the 13-18 second range.

Cutting

A cutting horse is a light saddle horse trained to cut (isolate) livestock, especially cattle, from herds. Most are quarter horses, with the intelligence, speed, and ability to make quick starts, stops, and turns. A well-disposed and trained cutting horse can manuever an animal away from a herd and into a corner with little direction from a rider, or, in some contests, without a rider.

Endurance Riding

Endurance riding is an extremely strenuous sport, requiring the horse to complete, when competing at the top levels, up to 100 miles. Winning riders complete these 100-mile rides in 10-12 hours. Any breed can compete, but Arabians generally dominate the top levels because of their incredible stamina and natural endurance abilities. There are currently endurance rides world-wide, and many countries are gaining interest in the sport.

Horses are regularily vetted on the ride, where they are checked for soundness and dehydration, and their pulse is taken. To continue the ride, the horse must pass the exam, including lowering their heart rate to 64 bpm, and any horse deemed too unfit to continue is eliminated.

Riders must have a great knowledge of pace, and know when to slow down or speed up during the ride. They must also have great knowledge of their horse's condition and signs of tiring.

In some countries, the winner is determined by a combination of their speed and the recovery rate of their horse. In other countries, no places are given, and awards are presented to any horse and rider that achieved a required standard.

Endurance riding is governed by the FEI, which sets down rules with the welfare of the horse as top priority.

One well known 100 mile endurance ride is The Western States Trail Ride, popularly called The Tevis Cup.

Fox Hunting

Fox hunting is a form of hunting for foxes using a pack of scent hounds. The pack is often followed by riders on horses. Like all forms of hunting, fox hunting is a blood sport, and as such it is controversial and has been outlawed in some countries. Many animal welfare activists believe that fox hunting is a cruel sport that should be banned, while pro-hunters argue that it is an effective and humane method of vermin control.

Driving

Although horse-drawn vehicles are no longer familiar sights on city streets and rural roads, the glamour and skill of driving endures in driving competitions and exhibitions. Since becoming an World Championship sport, interest both competitive and pleasure driving has greatly increased, particularly in the United States and Europe.

Cross-Country

The cross-country marathon phase of a combined driving competition, often held over hilly terrain and through water hazards, is a test of speed and endurance.

Obstacle Driving

This aspect tests a driver's skills and his horses responsiveness as they avoid upsetting obstacles on either side of the wheels.

Dressage

Dressage competition in driving, like its counterpoint under saddle, offers an opportunity to demonstrate a horse's training, managability and style.

Appointments and Dress

An apron protects a drivers clothing from dust and mud. Carriagelamps light the way at night. A coach horn sounds greetings and warnings to pedestrians and other carriages. The long whip allows the driver to correct any horses in the team. A hat and gloves are customarily worn when driving.

From Wikipedia.org